actres in bikini

What if you came from an egg that started to separate into identical twins but got stuck (or, as the alternative theory has it, were one of two embryos that became fused together) attaching you to your double for a lifetime? As we shall see in these seven cases from the late 19th and early 20th century, nature’s whim can join twins in the strangest of places – from the breastbone to the buttocks – making life difficult, to say the least. Given the state of medical knowledge at the time, surgical separation would have been out of the question in many cases, even if no organs were shared. Here are some of history’s most famous conjoined twins.

Chang and Eng Bunker


Chang and Eng Bunker top our list because they are probably the most famous among all the conjoined twins. Indeed, theirs is the reason the expression ‘Siamese twins’ was coined. They were born on May 11, 1811, in Samutsongkram, a province of what is now Thailand but was then known as Siam. So renowned did the brothers and their condition become that the term ‘Siamese’ was soon applied to conjoined twins in general.

Liou Seng-Sen and Liou Tang-Sen
The ‘Korean’ twins in 1903


Conjoined twins Liou Seng-Sen and Liou Tang-Sen were born in Nanjing, China, in 1886, or thereabouts. Their juncture was classified as xiphopagus, meaning they were joined between the navel and breastbone, as we can see in this image. Though quite solid looking, the connection between the pair was actually quite flexible, allowing them to stand side-by-side as well as facing each other. The twins’ mother died when they were only two years old, leaving their father as their guardian. However, from age six onward, they were readied for a life in show business, traveling from fair to fair in China, and later to Korea, Japan, India, Australia and Europe.

Rosa and Josefa Blazek
Earliest known photo of the Blazek twins as babies


Rosa and Josefa Blazek were born on January 20, 1878 in what today is the Czech Republic. Despite being fused from the ninth vertebrae down, they were delivered normally to parents – who must have been shocked, to say the least. But Mr. and Mrs. Blazek were also superstitious, and following a local medicine woman’s instruction, apparently did not allow the infants to eat or drink water for eight days. When the twins survived – quite miraculously, given this barbaric treatment – the parents and those around them appear to have understood it as God’s will that put their progeny on Earth.

Simplicio and Lucio Godina
The Godina twins in 1930.


The difficulty of the decision surrounding whether or not to operate on conjoined twins is shown in the case of the Samar brothers – so named after the island of their birth – Simplicio and Lucio Godina. Born in 1908, these boys from the Philippines later made the trip to the United States, where they became sideshow attractions in such hubs of ‘entertainment’ as Coney Island. In 1928, after various legal difficulties – including narrowly avoiding jail when a man was injured in an alleged drunk driving incident – they got married to identical (but not conjoined) twin sisters, Natividad and Victorina Matos, in Manila.

As for their condition, according to Louis R. Sullivan, from the American Museum of Natural History, who examined them briefly on July 31, 1918, the bodies of the Godina brothers were “entirely distinct except for a juncture of the right buttock of one of the twins with the left buttock of the other”. In medical terms, theirs was a pygopagus juncture – where the bodies are joined at the pelvis – very rarely seen in male conjoined twins, as most die at or before birth.

Giacomo and Giovanni Tocci
The Tocci twins, circa 1891.


As we can see in these images, the Tocci brothers were dicephalic conjoined twins; that is, they had one body with two heads, and were often dubbed ‘the two-headed boy’. Like Millie and Christine McKoy (see entry 3), they were often referred to as one person rather than two distinct personalities – as they were! The twins were connected from the sixth rib down, such that each had a pair of arms but shared two legs with the other. They also had separate hearts, lungs and stomachs but common genitalia. Like the parents of many other conjoined twins, mamma and papa Tocci realized the potential commercial advantages of their boys, preparing them for a life in show business and putting them on show when they were as young as one month.

Millie and Christine McKoy
Millie and Christine in Philadelphia, 1871.


Millie and Christine McKoy were born, joined at the base of the spine, on July 11, 1851, the eighth and ninth child of Monimia and Jacob McKay, slaves owned by a blacksmith in the small town of Welches Creek, North Carolina. At only ten months old, they were sold along with their mother to a showman, who in turn sold them on to two more men in the same trade, looking to make a quick buck. It seems to have been around this time that their last name was changed to McKoy.

Daisy and Violet Hilton
The Hilton twins


Daisy and Violet Hilton were born on February 5, 1908, in Brighton, England. Their young, single mother must have been quite overwhelmed at giving birth not only to twins but a pygopagus set – meaning those siblings joined at the pelvis. Evidently not realizing the financial potential of what were allegedly the first conjoined twins born in Britain to survive beyond a couple of weeks, the twins’ mother ‘gave’ them up for adoption to her landlady and midwife, Mary Hilton, when they were less than a month old.

Most terrifying civilizations, from bad to worst, from China to Zimbabwe, from Britain to Columbia.

Soviet Union


Communism is responsible for millions of deaths – more, even, than Nazi Germany in just the Soviet Union alone. Communists such as Josef Stalin, Mao Zedong, Pol Pot, Nicolae Ceausescu and others have killed millions of people. But The Soviet Union stands out as the worst. Stalin, alone, killed 10-60 million people. The Soviet Union was probably one of the U.S.A’s greatest foes. Living under Stalin put even the most average person into a state of constant fear – this, alone, makes the Soviet Union worse than Nazi Germany, in which the majority of Germans felt a certain level of safety as long as they supported the Nazi concept.

Nazi Germany


Although it was a very brief civilization, Nazi Germany was a superpower, and affected the world greatly. At least 4 million people were killed in the Holocaust (with some speculating it was closer to 11 million), and Nazi Germany started the worst war in human history – World War Two. The Nazi Swastika is probably the most hated symbol in the world. Nazi Germany owned about 268,829 square miles of land. Hitler was one of the most influential people ever – and his empire was, by far, one of the most terrifying.

Aztec Empire


The Aztecs began their elaborate theocracy in the 1300s, and brought human sacrifice to a golden era. About 20,000 people were killed yearly to appease gods — especially the sun god, who needed daily “nourishment” of blood. Hearts of sacrifice victims were cut out, and some bodies were eaten ceremoniously. Other victims were drowned, beheaded, burned or dropped from heights. In a rite to the rain god, shrieking children were killed at several sites so that their tears might induce rain. In a rite to the maize goddess, a virgin danced for 24 hours, then was killed and skinned; her skin was worn by a priest in further dancing. One account says that at King Ahuitzotl’s coronation, 80,000 prisoners were butchered to please the gods. It is said that sometimes the victim would be cannibalized.

Roman Empire


While Rome is possibly the greatest empire, you just can’t ignore some scariness. Criminals, slaves and others were forced to fight each other to the death in gladiatorial games. Some of the most evil men were Roman – Caligula, Nero and others. Christians were first, and horribly, targeted for persecution as a group, by the emperor Nero, in 64 AD. Some were torn apart by dogs, others burnt alive as human torches. At first they were ruled by divine kings, then they became a republic (perhaps their greatest period) before finally becoming an empire. How a group of farmers, who started off fending off wolves to protect their livestock, eventually became the greatest empire in all history is the stuff of legends. Coupled with an excellent military and administrative system, the Roman Empire, or rather ancient Rome, is also one of the longest-lasting. Counting from its founding to the fall of the Byzantine Empire, ancient Rome lasted for a whopping 2,214 years!

North Korea


Those caught stealing food in the famine-struck nation, or attempting to cross the borders, are subject to public execution. Kim is continuing his lavish lifestyle and military obsession, in spite of the crumbling economy. In North Korea, he and his father are deified, considered saviors of the whole universe. 250,000 dissidents are confined to “re-education camps”. He has waged a war on South Korea that involved assassinating South Korean leaders and blowing up South Korean planes. He presents a great threat to the world in terms of nuclear warfare, having persuaded the Soviet Union to award him a nuclear reactor, in 1984.

Viking Empire


They terrorized Europe with their raids and pillaging (though not all of them, as we have previously read on Listverse). They were ferocious in battle and used weapons that suited their stature. They were big and mean and used their axes, swords and spears expertly in the conquering of cities. Even their religion was about war, and they believed that when you died in battle you fought, once again, in a never ending battle. They were all you would want in a soldier and proved it on the battlefield by destroying all in their paths.

Apache Tribes


The Apaches were like the ninjas of America. They would sneak up behind you and slit your throat, without you even knowing. They used primitive weapons made mostly of wood and bone. They were also the greatest knife fighters the world has ever seen, and were pretty good with the tomahawk and throwing ax. They terrorized the southwest United States, and even the military had trouble beating them. They were great hit and run fighters, and their descendants teach modern day special forces how to fight in hand to hand combat. They usually scalped their victims.

Mongol Empire


The Mongols were considered barbarians and savages. They dominated Europe and Asia and were most famous for riding on horseback, lead by one of the greatest military commanders in history, Genghis Khan. They were highly disciplined and masters with using the bow and arrow on horseback. They used a composite bow that could rip through armor, and were also pretty good with lances and scimitars. They were masters of psychological warfare and intimidation, and built the second largest empire ever, smaller only than the British Empire (But nothing’s scary about tea and crumpets). It all started when Temujin (who was later known as Genghis Khan), vowed in his youth to bring the world to his feet. He almost did. Then he set his sights on China, and the rest is history. From Vietnam to Hungary, the Mongol Empire is the largest contiguous empire in the history of mankind.

Maori Civilization


The Maori were the first settlers of New Zealand – arriving many centuries before Europeans. Their culture dates back to the early modern era. They had been known to practice cannibalism during warfare. In October, 1809, a European convict ship was attacked by a large group of Maori warriors, in revenge for the mistreatment of a chief’s son. The Maori killed most of the 66 people on board, and carried dead and alive victims off the boat and back to shore to be eaten. A few lucky survivors, who were able to find a hiding spot inside the mast of the boat, were horrified as they watched the Maori devour their shipmates through the night and in to the next morning.

Celtic Empire


Celts had a large reputation as head hunters, and were famous for putting victim’s heads on their chariots, and in front of their homes. Many Celts fought completely naked (much to the surprise of their enemies) and are famous for their iron long sword: “They cut off the heads of enemies slain in battle and attach them to the necks of their horses. The blood-stained spoils they hand over to their attendants and striking up a paean and singing a song of victory; and they nail up these first fruits upon their houses, just as do those who lay low wild animals in certain kinds of hunting. They embalm in cedar oil the heads of the most distinguished enemies, and preserve them carefully in a chest, and display them with pride to strangers, saying that for this head one of their ancestors, or his father, or the man himself, refused the offer of a large sum of money. They say that some of them boast that they refused the weight of the head in gold."

Adolf will always be associated primarily with the Third Reich Führer. That is also the reason for the decreasing popularity of this, once wide-spread, name after WWII. Nevertheless, there were a lot of well-known personalities named Adolf.

Adolf Dassler
1900 – 1978


Adolf Dassler, more known as Adi Dassler, was always a passionate sportsman. Born into the family of a German shoe worker, Adi became a cobbler himself, but he had a dream to create a shoe specifically for athletes. Shortly after WWI, he started to work on it in his mother’s laundry room, assisted by his brothers (the older one, Rudolf, will be later known as the founder of Puma). The brothers soon started a successful business, which was called Gebrüder Dassler Schuhfabrik (Dassler Brothers Shoe Factory). Dassler didn’t miss any sporting event in his quest to make athletes wear the shoes from the Dassler Shoe Factory. At the 1928 Olympics in Amsterdam, some athletes were wearing these shoes and, during the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, the US athlete Jesse Owens won 4 gold medals wearing Dassler’s shoes. All that was a good advertisement for the company and helped it to establish international contacts.

As WWII began, Adi’s brother Rudolf was drafted. Adi himself produced boots for Wehrmacht (undoubtedly helped by the fact that he voluntarily joined the Nazi Party). After the war, the brothers tried to continue working together, but due to the disagreements Rudolf left Adi and founded his own company, Puma. Adolf Dassler reformed his shoe company and gave it a new name using the short form of his first name and the first three letters of his last name. Adidas is one of the most well-known sportswear companies.

Adolph von Menzel
1815-1905


Adolph von Menzel is one of the most renowned German artists. He was considered the most successful artist in Germany in the 19th century. In 1833, Menzel studied for a short period of time at the Berlin Academy of Art. He drew from casts and ancient sculptures. But generally, Menzel was self-taught.

Menzel was the first to largely introduce to Germany the technique of wood engraving. From 1839 to 1842, he produced 400 drawings, illustrating the Geschichte Friedrichs des Grossen (History of Frederick the Great) by Franz Kugler. After that, he brought out Friedrichs der Grossen Armee in ihrer Uniformirung (The Uniforms of the Army under Frederick the Great), Soldaten Friedrichs der Grossen (The Soldiers of Frederick the Great); and finally, following the order of the king Frederick William IV, he illustrated the works of Frederick the Great, Illustrationen zu den Werken Friedrichs des Grossen (1843-1849). These works established Menzel’s claim to be considered one of the first illustrators of his day.

His popularity in Germany, especially due to his politically propagandistic works, was so great that most of his major paintings remained in Germany, as a lot of them were quickly acquired by Berlin museums. Menzel himself traveled a lot searching for subjects for his art, visiting exhibitions and meeting with other artists, but still spent most of his life in Berlin. Although he had many friends and acquaintances, he was, by his own words, detached from others. He probably felt socially estranged for physical reasons, alone—Menzel was about four foot six inches and had a large head.

Adolph Freiherr Knigge
1752-1796


During his life, the German writer and Freemason Adolph Freiherr Knigge (Freiherr is not a personal name but a title, meaning Baron) was a member of Corps Hannovera, the Court Squire and Assessor of the War and Domains Exchequer in Kassel, Chamberlain at the Weimar court and a member of Bavarian Illuminati.

Still he’s mostly remembered for one book he wrote. This book should be known by any German. Knigge’s Über den Umgang mit Menschen (On Human Relations) is a fundamental sociological and philosophical work on principles of human relations and also a guide to behavior, politeness and etiquette. There even appeared the word Knigge in German language to mean “good manners” or books on etiquette.

Adolf Anderssen
1818 – 1879


In the 1850′s and 1860′s, the German chess master Adolf Anderssen was considered to be the strongest chess player. He took the first prize in over half of the European tournaments, from 1851 to early 1878. In 1851, he represented Germany in the first international chess tournament, which took place in London. The tournament made Anderssen the world’s leading chess player. A month later the London Chess Club organized a tournament which included several players who had competed in the International Tournament. Anderssen won again. During his career Anderssen also knew defeat. He didn’t do as well in matches as in tournaments. In 1866, Anderssen lost a close match with Wilhelm Steinitz. At the Leipzig tournament in 1877, Anderssen came second, behind Louis Paulsen. The tournament was organized on the initiative from the Central German Chess Federation, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Anderssen’s learning the chess moves. Remarkably, it was the only tournament ever organized to commemorate a competitor.

All in all, Anderssen was a very important figure in the development of chess problems. He is known for his brilliant sacrificial attacking play, particularly in the “Immortal Game” (1851) and the “Evergreen Game” (1852). Adolf Anderssen was honored to be an “elder statesman” of the game, to whom others turned for advice or arbitration.

Adolf Bastian
1826-1905


Adolf Bastian was a major ethnologist of the 19th century, who contributed greatly to the development of such disciplines as ethnography and anthropology. His theory of the Elementargedanke became a basis for Carl Jung’s theory of archetypes.

Bastian’s career at university was very broad. He first studied law at the Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg, and biology at what is today the Humboldt University of Berlin, the Friedrich Schiller University of Jena and the University of Würzburg. There he attended lectures by Rudolf Virchow and became interested in what we now know as ‘ethnology’. He eventually earned a degree in medicine, in Prague in 1850. Bastian worked as a ship’s doctor and for 8 years he traveled around the world. It was his first travel spent outside the German Confederation. Having returned home in 1859, he wrote a popular account of his travels and an ambitious three volume work, Man in History, which became one of his most well-known works.

In 1861, he went on a four-year trip to Southeast Asia, which led to the six volume work entitled The People of East Asia. For the next eight years, Bastian stayed in the North German Confederation, where he was involved in the creation of several key ethnological institutions, in Berlin. He made copious contributions to Berlin’s Royal museum and the second museum, the Museum of Folkart, was founded largely thanks to Bastians contributions. Its collection of ethnographic artifacts became one of the largest in the world for that time, and for decades to come. He also worked with Rudolf Virchow to organize the Ethnological Society of Berlin. During this period, he was the head of the Royal Geographical Society of Germany. Since the 1870s, Bastian was traveling extensively in Africa as well as the New World. He died during one of his journeys, in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.

Adolf Hurwitz
1859-1919


A Jewish-born German mathematician, Adolf Hurwitz was described by Jean-Pierre Serre as “one of the most important figures in mathematics in the second half of the nineteenth century”. He was taught mathematics by Hermann Schubert, who found out his talent for mathematics and persuaded Hurwitz’s father to allow Adolf to go to university. He also arranged for Hurwitz to study with Felix Klein at Munich. Under Klein’s direction, Hurwitz became a doctoral student. His dissertation, in 1881, concerned elliptic modular functions. After working for two years at the University of Göttingen, and being an Extraordinary Professor at the Albertus Universität in Königsberg, Hurwitz took a chair at the Eidgenössische Polytechnikum Zürich, in 1892, and remained there for the rest of his life. Among his students there was Albert Einstein.

Hurwitz was one of the early masters of the Riemann surface theory and one of the authors of Riemann–Hurwitz formula. Hurwitz was particularly interested in number theory. He studied the maximal order theory for the quaternions. In number theory, there’s a Hurwitz theorem named for him.

Adolf Eugen Fick
1829 -1901 and 1852-1937


The seventh place is shared by the German physiologist Adolf Fick and his ophthalmologist nephew of the same name.

The first started to study mathematics and physics, but then realized he was more interested in medicine. In 1851, he earned his doctorate in medicine at Marburg. After that he worked as a prosector in anatomy. In 1855, Fick’s law of diffusion was introduced. The law, which applies equally to physiology and physics, governs the diffusion of a gas across a fluid membrane. Fifteen years later, Adolf Fick introduced a technique for measuring cardiac output, called the Fick principle. Fick is also known as an inventor of the tonometer. This work influenced his nephew, who invented the contact lens.

Adolf Gaston Eugen Fick was actually raised in the family of his uncle after the premature death of his father, anatomy professor Ludwig Fick. He studied medicine in Würzburg, Zürich, Marburg und Freiburg. In 1887, he tested an afocal scleral contact shell, made from heavy brown glass, on rabbits then on himself and, finally, on a small group of volunteers. It was considered the first successful model of a contact lens. During WWI, Fick headed the field hospitals in France, Russia and Turkey. At the same time he continued working on ophthalmologic anatomy and optics.

Adolf Merckle
1934-2009


Adolf Merckle, a German billionaire, became one of the victims of financial crisis. In 2009, he committed suicide by throwing himself in front of a train.

Merckle owned the largest pharmaceutical wholesaler in Germany, Phoenix Pharmahandel. He inherited his business from a grandfather but contributed greatly to its development. In 2006, Merckle was the world’s 44th richest man. He faced problems in 2008, during the financial crisis when he made a speculative investment based on his belief that Volkswagen shares would fall. However, in October 2008, Porsche SE’s support of Volkswagen sent shares on the Xetra dax from €210.85 to over €1000 in less than two days, resulting in losses estimated in the hundreds of millions of dollars for Merckle.

“The desperate situation of his companies caused by the financial crisis, the uncertainties of the last few weeks and his powerlessness to act, have broken the passionate family entrepreneur and he took his own life,” a family statement said.

Adolf Loos
1870-1933


German architect Adolf Loos was born in Brunn, Czechoslovakia, in 1870. He started studying architecture at the Royal and Imperial State Technical College in Rechenberg, Bohemia, but soon was drafted to the army, where he served for two years. He then attended the College of Technology in Dresden for three years. From 1893 to 1896, he lived in the U.S. and worked as a mason, a floor-layer and a dish-washer. He finally got a job with the architect Carl Mayreder and, in 1897, he already had his own practice. He taught for several years throughout Europe, but returned to practice in Vienna, in 1928.

Adolf Loos had great influence in European Modern architecture. Still, he was more known for his writings rather than for his buildings. In his essay Ornament and Crime, he repudiated the florid style of the Vienna Secession, the Austrian version of Art Nouveau. This, and many other essays, are devoted to the elaboration of a body of theory and criticism of Modernism in architecture. Loos established building method supported by reason, as he was convinced that everything that could not be justified on rational grounds was superfluous, and should not exist. Loos preferred pure forms due to economy and effectiveness. He was also against decoration, considering it mass-produced and mass-consumed trash, and believing that culture resulted from the renunciation of passions, thus the absence of ornamentation generated spiritual power. His fight for freedom from the decorative styles of the nineteenth century inspired future architects.

The buildings by Adolf Loos are mostly situated in Vienna, but can also be found in Paris, Prague and other cities.

Adolf von Henselt
1814 – 1889


Adolf von Henselt was a German composer and pianist, born at Schwabach, Bavaria. He began to learn the violin at the age of three and the piano at five. As he got a financial help from King Ludwig I of Bavaria, he went to study under Johann Nepomuk Hummel in Weimar for some months, and then moved to Vienna in 1832, where, along with studying composition, he made a great success as a concert pianist. Several years later he moved to Saint Petersburg, and became court pianist and inspector of musical studies in the Imperial Institute of Female Education, and was ennobled in 1876. For summer holidays he usually went to his former homeland, Germany. In 1852 and again in 1867, he visited England, though in the latter year he made no public appearance. He actually had to withdraw from concert appearances by age thirty-three because of a stage fright so bad it was close to paranoia.

Henselt’s playing can be characterized as a combination of Franz Liszt’s sonority with Hummel’s smoothness. It was remarkable for the great use of extended chords and for the perfect technique. Henselt had an immense influence on the next generation of Russian pianists. The entire Russian school of music comes from Henselt’s playing and teaching. A famous Russian composer, Sergei Rachmaninoff, had a very high opinion of Henselt, and considered him one of his most important influences.

What’s more, early modern and feudal economies are not based on money transactions as we think of them today, and less than 5% of the population would have any money. The first promissory notes used in Medieval Italy would have been entirely used by merchants to transfer money long distances, and were not used by ordinary people until very recently.

Apparently we’ve been living in some horrific financial crisis for over a year now, and the news simply won’t let you forget about it. You would almost think it was the end of the world, as if this kind of thing is unique to our times and to modern economies, and that it’s a problem nobody has had to deal with before.

British Empire
1945-1997


Then: £21 billion
Now: $872 billion

At the end of World War 2 most of Europe was in financial, and literal, ruins. The cost of maintaining the army, navy and newly burgeoning air force left the United Kingdom in economic peril, with the American Lend-Lease act supplying ten billion dollar’s worth of vital equipment. When Lend-Lease was terminated the equipment, still sorely needed for the recovery effort, was loaned at the cost of £1 billion, but this was just a drop in the ocean. The financial situation was dire, and resulted in vast and rapid socio-political changes in the Empire. The Royal Navy was the first major target, and by 1960 1100 of its 1300 ships were dismantled and sold for scrap, and the shipyards that had built two thirds of the world’s ships were closed or limited in capacity.

At home wartime rationing continued years into the peace, and housing shortages were endemic for decades, breeding cultural and economic stagnation, unemployment and homelessness. Later decades were characterized by constant strikes, riots, power shortages and reading by candlelight, economic booms followed by economic busts, and repeated nationalizations and privatizations by opposing parties with different ideas about how to save the economy.

Abroad, the Empire, now a crippling burden, was quickly taken apart. Almost nobody in the modern age would say the end of colonialism was a bad thing, however the rapid pace of decolonization unwittingly created some of the most volatile political conflicts of the modern age. Lines were hastily drawn on maps, countries split and ushered awkwardly into self-governance, and countries painfully partitioned. Israel was carved out of Palestine. India and Pakistan were partitioned with immediate sectarian violence around the new border, culminating in a modern day Asian Cold War over Kashmir between the two nuclear powers.

Many African colonies fell into ethnic warfare and sadistic dictatorships under the likes of Robert Mugabe and Idi Amin, while in the Middle East Iraq and Iran both saw their British supported monarchs overthrown by repressive dictatorships. If you could salvage any good thing from the mess of imperialism it might be the ironic legacy of democratic parliamentary systems in most of the former colonies.

The war loan was finally paid off in 2006.

Weimar republic
1919-1933


Then: 269 billion gold marks
Now: $420 billion

In 1919, the Treaty of Versailles stated that Germany and its allies were responsible for all damage done to allied countries, and in 1921 it was decided that Germany owed 269 billion gold marks, or 23 billion pounds, in monetary and material reparations. Germany began defaulting on its payments by 1922, stalling shipments of coal and wood to France, prompting the French to occupy the valuable Ruhr valley in order to take the raw materials themselves. This in turn led to sabotage and strikes, and weakened the Versailles Treaty with both sides claiming the other was dishonoring one or more clauses.

In 1924, the Dawes plan reduced Germany’s payments to 112 billion marks, following widespread criticism that the sums were impossible for a heavily destabilized economy to manage. The government printed more and more money to try and cover the economic downturn and pay the debt, but the flood of money caused prices to rise and required more money. Economists hurriedly tried to stabilize the mark by buying it in foreign markets with valuable gold and materials, but this only caused the its value to plummet further, along with the loss of stable currency. The effects on the poor and middle classes was devastating: pensions were destroyed, savings vanished, and, in 1923, the cost of a loaf of bread was 200 million marks, and even if you had that much (carried in a wheelbarrow, usually) its value might have depreciated by the time you reached the baker’s.

All of this created in ordinary Germans the feeling that they were being persecuted, starved and impoverished, for something that was not their fault. It was already commonly thought that the army had not lost the war, but that it was Weimar politicians, bolsheviks, socialists and Jews who had caused defeat, as well as the idea that the Triple Entente had begun the war in the first place. When Adolf Hitler became chancellor in 1933 he exploited the ‘Stab in the Back’ myth to its fullest, and thus the Nazi party stormed into power on a new wave of nationalism.

Russian Revolution
1917


Then: 50 billion rubles
Now: $270 billion

Following Imperial Russia’s disastrous defeat in World War One, the government faced debts of up to 50 billion rubles and near bankruptcy. Industries collapsed, and the chaotic disruption of the transportation network caused many industrial closures and resulted in huge unemployment, while the wages of those who kept their jobs fell drastically. Facing starvation from poverty, the disrupted food supply and rampant inflation due to the overprinting of money to cover the war deficit, people abandoned their jobs and cities to look for food. Soldiers lacked adequate equipment, and thousands froze in the streets.

Mass strikes and riots began in Petrograd, formerly St. Petersburg, and spread across the country. The Bolsheviks, who had seized a portion of political power after the February Revolution’s institution of a limited constitutional government, organized strikers into militias. It was easy to convince people that their suffering was due to the greed and ineptitude of the rich and the corrupt, oppressive monarchy.

In July 1917, the Provisional Government ordered that a demonstration in Petrograd be quelled, and violence broke out as soldiers opened fire on the crowds. The following month a rogue general led his troops in an attack against the Bolsheviks in the city, and was beaten back by militia, sailors and strikers. Uprisings began two months later, taking over the Winter Palace and government facilities, and in 1922 the USSR formally began.

7 Years’ War
1756 – 1763


Then: £133 milion
Now: $18 billion

When the French started building a ring of forts along the Ohio river to box the English colonies against the sea, it was quite evident that something big was brewing. That something would turn out to be the Seven Years’ War, a truly global conflict primarily between the United Kingdom and France for domination of the colonies in North America, the West Indies and India, while a continental war between Prussia, Austria and their allies raged in Europe.

The cost of such a vast war on states with a still fledgling understanding of mercantile economics was great, but the difference between Britain and France was the Bank of England and the possibilities of government borrowing, which prime minister William Pitt seized upon, and which his French counterparts, under Louis XV, could not. Louis’ war cabinet was divided over focusing their efforts in the colonies, or focusing on the war in Europe. The French decided to focus on Europe, and planned an invasion of England through Scotland that would force a peace treaty giving colonial dominance to France.

Pitt’s evaluation was the opposite, and he determined that complete victory in every theatre was worth paying any price, and that failure anywhere was complete failure. A vast amount of money was poured into the colonial war effort, and paid off handsomely with James Wolfe’s victory at Quebec, at Pondicherry in India, and at Minden in Germany. To finally scupper the French plans, Admiral Hawke destroyed the French fleet intended to escort the invasion barges to Scotland at the Battle of Quiberon bay. The cost of the war resulted in unpopular measures such as the very first income tax and a tax on windows which may have coined the phrase ‘daylight robbery’.

Ottoman Empire
1853 – 1923


Then: £200 million
Now: $14 billion

When Tsar Nicholas I described the Ottoman Empire as the ‘sick man of Europe’, he described a nation incapable of keeping up with the advances of European powers, and in the late 19th century it was still administered in an almost medieval fashion. Rail transport was virtually non existent, industry was still based on small scale manual manufacturing, and the economy was based mostly on taxation of the poor, largely agrarian population. Up until 1853 the Empire had slowly begun to develop its infrastructure, but was unable to advance very far on its limited finances, and was wary of going into debt with European nations.

The Crimean War changed that stance, however, and the Ottoman Imperial Bank was established by British and French financiers to provide a line of credit to the government. The government began defaulting on its interest payments in 1875, however, and the province of Egypt, nominally part of the Empire but partially autonomous, was occupied by the British in 1883 to take control of the Public Debt. The Ottoman government was now firmly dependent on Britain and France for its finances, and much of the new infrastructure was owned by their investors.

The end came with World War One. With the Empire still underdeveloped and its satellites picked off by its creditors, the British invasion took Mesopotamia (Iraq), Palestine, Lebanon and Syria, and the Sykes-Picoult agreement divided these former holdings between the French and British Empires. Finally, in 1923, after occupation by the Allied powers, the Empire was dissolved and the Republic of Turkey formed in its place.

Philip II of Spain
1554 – 1598


Then: 86 million ducats
Now: $11 billion

Philip II ruled Spain during the ‘Golden Age’ of its superpower global empire, yet in his lifetime also saw the beginning of its long decline. Already burdened with a 36 million ducat debt by his predecessor, the poorness of Spain itself meant low tax revenues, so Philip relied heavily on gold shipped from the Americas to supplement his treasury. Along with the tax burden and increased state spending this caused high inflation, which devalued the currency and harmed Spanish industries.

The unreliability of New World gold during war time caused the first bankruptcy of a nation in modern history, in 1557. To cover the costs of multiple wars Philip began borrowing from Italian bankers, who kept financing his wars despite repeated failure to keep up interest payments, sending Spanish debt payments up to 40% of the country’s yearly income and resulting in further bankruptcies in 1560, 1576 and 1596.

Eventually the debt was 85 million ducats, when the state’s yearly income was only 9 million. Repeated military disasters resulted in the casual squandering of millions. When Philip lost control of England after his wife, Queen Mary, died, leaving England in the control of Protestant Queen Elizabeth I, he financed an armada to eliminate protestantism before it could spread to Europe.

When the armada sank, over 10 million ducats sank with it, while privateers like Francis Drake captured Spanish Gold Galleons. The Dutch Revolt was particularly damaging as the wages of soldiers ended up going into the emergent Dutch economy instead of Spain’s, and the value of Spanish exports and imports were damaged.

Spain’s economic woes meant that it could not maintain its stranglehold on New World colonialism, and following Philip’s reign it was overtaken by the Dutch, the French and then the English. The Spanish navy lost its position to the emerging power of the Royal Navy, and Spanish holdings in Europe were soon lost.

French Revolution
1789 – 1799


Then: 2 billion livres-tournois
Now: $6 billion

When Louis XV died he left his historically maligned successor Louis XVI with a handbag full of troubles, having been engaged in four catastrophic wars in the 18th century. While the first War of the Austrian Succession and the American War of Independence technically weren’t losses, France came away with less than she put in. The first failed to restore the previous balance of power in central Europe, while after the latter war the Americans repaid French assistance by going straight back to trading with Britain instead of favoring French trade. Meanwhile the Seven Years’ War (see below) shore away almost all of France’s overseas empire.

Louis XVI was not a complete dithering fool, as he is sometimes portrayed – he did try to do something about the imminent financial meltdown – he was largely a weak, impotent man who lacked the gumption to force the necessary changes through. The prospect of imposing taxes on the tax exempt nobility and clergy to offset the debt failed outright, being scorned and virtually ignored. France lacked an equivalent to the Bank of England, which allowed the UK to manage a considerably larger debt in the same period, to help manage the problem.

The strains on ordinary people mounted. Food prices rose, squalor spread disease through the cities and widespread famine broke out. Soldiers were unpaid, unemployment was rife, and all the while the nobility paid no tax and enjoyed a lifestyle of excess and power, and in 1789 the Revolution broke out.

Welsh conquest
1277-1283


Then: £240,000
Now: $193 million

Many people will be familiar with the English King Edward I from Braveheart, which we all now know to be a historically dubious, if entertaining, movie. Well, one thing was true about Edward: he was definitely a brutal, megalomaniacal tyrant, and before he turned his malefic gaze to Scotland he was concerned with Wales. Following the Norman invasion, the osmosis of Norman nobility across the Welsh border had opened up feudal debates over lordship between the nobility of the two countries.

In 1277, Edward I, who had ascended the throne 5 years earlier, led an army 15,000 strong into Wales after the Welsh leader Llywelyn ap Gruffud refused to acknowledge Edward’s sovereignty. Llywelyn had previously been confirmed as the sole authority in Wales by the Treaty of Worcester, having allied with Simon de Montfort, the baron whose civil war against King Henry III resulted in the convening of the very first parliament. The first invasion forced Llywelyn to accept a peace treaty limiting his control to the land west of Conway Castle. In 1282, the Welsh rose in rebellion and Edward led an even larger army into the country. Llywelyn was killed in a minor skirmish in the centre of the country.

The cost of the invasions, and the building of a massive network of castles to cow the local population and subsume their culture, was around £240,000, more than 10 times the annual income of the kingdom, and a great deal of the sum was borrowed from Jewish bankers in London. Very soon, no doubt in a fit of conscience, Edward outlawed money-lending and forced the Jews to wear yellow identity badges. Within a year of the conquest he had the heads of their households arrested, and hanged over 300 in the Tower of London, expelling the rest of the population, handily erasing a good portion of his debt, even receiving a tax bonus from the Catholic Church for the immensely popular act.

One positive effect of the invasion (always look on the bright side, I suppose) was that a large part of the cost had to be paid by tax grants which were acquired by summoning a parliament, the necessity of which added to the long process whereby a (somewhat) democratic institution took more and more power away from the monarch.

The Darien Scheme
1695-1700


Then: £400,000
Now: $56 million

In 1695 the Kingdom of Scotland chartered the Company of Scotland in an attempt to bolster its limited finances by joining the other major trading empires of the world in Africa and the Indies. William Paterson, a successful Scottish entrepreneur who had been a founder of the Bank of England, convinced Scottish investors they could dominate East Asian trade by establishing a colony on the Isthmus of Panama, transporting goods by land from the Pacific coast to the Atlantic so that ships could avoid the long and treacherous voyage around South America. The plan, which he had unsuccessfully tried to market to the English government under James II, is known as the Darién Scheme.

Investors from all social strata gave £400,000 to the scheme, and the first ships set sail in 1698, arriving at the Bay of Darién in November, where they began building the colony of New Caledonia. Paterson’s plans were far fetched, however, and the difficulties of life in Central America were not something he had witnessed or researched. His own wife was dead before the colonists even arrived in the mosquito plagued bay, and within 7 months hundreds more were dead from starvation, fever and skirmishes with the Spanish, who considered the area part of their colony of New Granada. Supplies were limited as the English colonies had been ordered not to assist the Scots for fear of angering the Spanish. Even had the colony been properly established, the logistics of hauling cargo across densely forested and rugged terrain would surely have been impossible.

After a second expedition had set sail, without knowing of the already interminable situation, the colony was abandoned, only a single ship returning from the disaster. With almost half of all Scotland’s money sunk into the scheme, only the most die hard Jacobites were against it when the English parliament offered to bail them out as incentive to agree to the 1707 Act of Union, combining the two nations into the United Kingdom.

The Fourth Crusade
1202-1204


Then: 86,000 silver marks
Now: $41 million

The plan for the Fourth Crusade was to launch an invasion of Cairo, and from there attack Saracen controlled Jerusalem through Egypt. The Crusading movement had lost steam after the failure of the Third Crusade to keep Jerusalem, but nonetheless an army was assembled and the greater part of it gathered at Venice, where Doge Enrico Dandolo had agreed that the Venetian navy would transport them to Egypt. The Venetians had suspended their economy for the better part of a year to construct the transport ships and train almost a third of the population as sailors, and the Doge would not agree to transport the Crusade unless they paid the entire agreed sum of 86,000 silver marks. The Crusaders could only pay 51,000.

Dandolo suggested that, as an alternative form of payment, the Crusade could help recapture the Christian city of Zara on the Dalmatian coast, an act for which the Pope sent a letter excommunicating the Crusaders, but which was luckily misplaced.

Emperor Isaac II of the Byzantine Empire had been forced into exile by his brother Alexius in 1195, who had then gone on a populist rampage, killing the mistrusted Latin population of Constantinople, an act which did not endear the Byzantines to the Venetians. Isaac’s son offered the Crusaders 200,000 marks to help him capture Constantinople and reclaim the throne, and the debt crippled Crusade was easy to convince.

When the Crusader’s fee was not met – due to the ransacking of the treasury by the fleeing usurper – the Crusaders sacked the city, pillaging up to 900,000 marks worth of valuables, burning much of the city. The Venetians and other leaders of the Crusade took direct control of the city, forming a corrupt and decadent regime that squandered what was left of Constantinople’s grandeur. The Byzantine Empire, last remnant of the Roman Empire split into several separate kingdoms, and never recovered.

This list is NOT an endorsement of the Nazi regime which is, clearly, one of the most evil in history – second only to Stalinist Russia. This list hopefully shows that even amidst great evil, the good of man is still able to shine through.

Medical Advances


The death of ethics from medicine in Nazi Germany was a sinful, reckless, and dangerous decision, leading to untold atrocities; it has created one of the most extensive ethical controversies in history. Through the Nazi use of torture they discovered information that is discretely used by doctors and medical scientists today. For example, the Nazis extensively studied and monitored hypothermia, at Dachau concentration camp, by subjecting victims to severe torture.

The Nazis immersed victims in vats of freezing water or left them out in the winter cold, all the while monitoring changes in body temperature, heart rate, muscle responses and urine. These tests were initially performed on volunteer soldiers, but the Nazis were not satisfied that they had all the information they could get and began to test on concentration camp victims.

They attempted to formulate methods to bring the bodies back to a safe temperature, including the “Rapid Active Rewarming” technique that seemed to be the most effective method of revival – and is used today in the west. This research could potentially fill a gap in other researchers studying hypothermia.

Contributions to Fashion


The Nazi style of uniform was as bold as their style of government. Thick-soled leather boots, slouch hats, cowhide coats, and peak hats were some of the staples in Nazi fashion, as well as muted color tones often in gray, tan and black. The SS Panzer military organization struck fear into the hearts of their adversaries, with black forage caps and leather coats which were later adopted by American rockers. Doc Martens closely resemble the jump boots that many Schutzstaffel officers wore. Look around at any rock, industrial or otherwise ‘edgy’ group and you see small traces of Nazi fashion sense. The American novelist Kurt Vonnegut once described the style as ‘mildly theatrical’.

Additionally, the founder of Adidas, Adolf Dassler (whose nickname was Adi), was a Nazi. He produced shoes for the Wehrmacht during the war, as well was providing American and Nazi athletes with his footwear during the Berlin Olympics. This created national acclaim when Jesse Owens won the sprinting event at the Berlin Olympics wearing Adolf Dassler’s shoes. Adidas is now a multinational company, supplying athletes all over the world with a supply of footwear and sports accessories.

His brother, Rudolf Dassler, was the more ardent Nazi of the two brothers and went on to found another proficient sports company…Puma. Oh – and Hugo Boss was a Nazi who, from 1934, was an official supplier of uniforms to the SA, SS, Hitler Youth, NSKK and other Party organizations (as evidenced in the advertisement above).

Innovations in Film


The Nazis were very interested in both film and music as propaganda techniques and essential cultural pillars. The first known magnetic tape recording was of a speech made by Hitler, and Joseph Goebbels pushed for more complicated methods of filming.

For example, the propaganda film ‘Triumph of the Will’, the sequel to the former propaganda film ‘Triumph of the Faith’, is regarded as one of the most important pieces of cinematographic history. The director, Leini Riefenstahl (pictured above) used an astounding thirty film cameras and over one hundred technicians to produce the two hour film. Since Triumph of the Will had an unlimited budget, the latest technologies were used. Cranes and track-rail filming were used, techniques still used today to make a smooth ‘traveling’ effect.

Ultimately, the propaganda films are dead, but the techniques developed at the time are seen regularly in the latest great Hollywood blockbusters.

Father of Modern Rocketry


The man who invented rockets as we know them today, Wernher Von Braun, was a member of the Nazi party and commissioned Schutzstaffel Officer. He aided both Germany and the United States in the use of rockets during and after WW2, and eventually became a naturalized U.S. Citizen.

Although he pioneered many areas, including the installation of liquid-fueled rockets in aircraft and orbit to ground missiles, he is best known for his achievements in NASA.

His best achievement there was undoubtedly the development of the Saturn V booster rocket, that helped man to finally touch the moon, in July 1969. Von Braun officially opened the gate to space travel through his innovative inventions…as well as creating one of the most destructive methods of war known to mankind.

Autobahn


While not originally conceived by the Nazis, Hitler was an enthusiastic supporter of the idea and pushed for the largest network of roads to be built across Germany. Established as the first freeway system in the world, the autobahn was a revolutionary feat of engineering that forever changed the way humans travel. Thousands of countries have emulated the system Hitler put in place, including America and Britain. It is single handedly the largest network of roadways in the world, with roads stretching all across the country, even to other countries such as Austria.

The construction of this roadway wasn’t only revolutionary in itself, it provided over 100,000 workers with jobs necessary for the economic recovery efforts. It was a goal of the Nazi party to try and bring the country into a sense of unity through the roadway system, and for the most part it was successful. Aircraft was tested on the long, smooth, straight sections of road and Grand Prix racing teams are known to practice on them.

The Volkswagen


Literally meaning “People’s Car”, this vehicle was presented as a car that every German citizen could afford to buy. It was based on the advice of Hitler to the designer, saying that it should resemble a beetle. The car was a huge success (it was made available to citizens of the Third Reich through a savings scheme at 990 Reichsmark, about the price of a small motorcycle), but toward the end of the war resources were low and public availability declined. The Volkswagen emerged more as a military vehicle toward the end of the Third Reich.

However this has not stopped it from being one of the most popular vehicles in the world, known for reliability, stylish design (though some might question that!) and ease of use.

Welfare Programs


Nazi Germany had one of the largest public welfare programs in history, based on the philosophy that all Germans should share a standard of living.

One of the most famous of these was the Winter Relief program, where high ranking Nazis and common citizens both took to the streets to collect charity for the unfortunate. This was not only an extremely intelligent propaganda move, but also a ritual to generate general good public feeling toward those in need. Posters urged people to donate rather than give directly to beggars. Joseph Goebbels, himself a high ranking Nazi in control of Radio, Television and Propaganda, often participated in these events.

But how was the cost of this met? Largely from the stealing of belongings from those people considered enemies of the regime. The Nazi government stole immense amounts of money from their population and used it to fund a social welfare scheme that favored select members of society. Modern schemes modeled on this system are funded by taxes that steal from everyone.

Anti-Tobacco Movement


It is rumored that Adolf Hitler was so opposed to smoking in his later life that he couldn’t stand someone lighting up in the same room, and often felt obligated to object to it as a waste of money. Thus, he began one of the most expensive and effective tobacco movements throughout history. While during the 1930s and 1940s, other anti-tobacco movements failed fantastically in other countries, it was taken seriously in Nazi Germany.

The Nazis banned smoking in restaurants and public transportation systems, citing public health, and severely regulated the advertising of smoking and cigarettes. There was also a high tobacco tax, and the supplies of cigarettes to the Wehrmacht were rationed. Several health organizations in Nazi Germany even began claiming that smoking heightened the risks of miscarriages by pregnant women, now a commonly known fact.

The statistics of annual cigarette consumption per capita as of 1940 had Germany at only 749, while Americans smoked over 3,000.

Animal Conservation


When the Nazis came to power in 1933, their concerns not only laid with the people, but with the animals native to Germany. In 1934, a national hunting law was passed to regulate how many animals could be killed per year, and to establish proper ‘hunting seasons’. These hunting laws have now been applied in most western countries.

This law was known as Das Reichsjagdgesetz, the Reich Hunting Law. The Reichstag also footed the bill for education on animal conservation at Primary, Secondary and College levels. Additionally, in 1935, another law was passed, the Reichsnaturschutzgesetz (Reich Nature Protection Act). This law placed several native species on a protection list including the wolf and Eurasian lynx. Additions were added later as to afforestation and the humane slaughter of living fish.

Without this law it is likely some species would have completely disappeared from Germany’s forests.

Banning of Vivisection


Nazi Germany was the first country to ban vivisection in the world, enacting a total ban in April 1933. The measure to ban vivisection was a huge concern and was put forth to the Reichstag as early as 1927. High ranking Nazis such as Hermann Goring, Heinrich Himmler and Adolf Hitler were very concerned about animal conservation, particularly pertaining as to how animals were butchered. Most current laws in Germany, and indeed the world, are derived from the laws put forth by the Nazi Party. This is, obviously, incredibly ironic as while on the one hand they defended the lives of brute animals, whilst on the other hand cruelly slaughtered Catholics, homosexuals, gypsies, and jews.

Hermann Goring, who was established as the Prime Minister of Prussia, had this to say:

“An absolute and permanent ban on vivisection is not only a necessary law to protect animals and to show sympathy with their pain, but it is also a law for humanity itself…. I have therefore announced the immediate prohibition of vivisection and have made the practice a punishable offense in Prussia.

Until such time as punishment is pronounced the culprit shall be lodged in a concentration camp.”

So what makes a bad aircraft? Is it the slowest, most outdated or poorest armed aircraft? It’s not that simple, as some aircraft massively overachieved despite being outdated (the Fairey Swordfish is a prime example.)

A bad aircraft is something that failed to do the job it was assigned to do. Some of the planes weren’t bad designs, just outdated. Others could have been great but were rushed into production and dogged by reliability issues. Others were simply bad full stop. Some you may know, but others have, quite rightly, faded into obscurity. There is a dark side to this list, as their deficiencies undoubtedly cost the lives of hundreds of young pilots. Although, on the other hand, you could also argue that in failing they could not inflict casualties themselves.

Yokosuka MXY-7 Ohka
Japan


The final entry on our list, the MXY-7 Ohka (Cherry Blossom) wasn’t a plane as such, but a manned missile. By 1944, Japan was growing increasingly desperate to stem the Allied advance through the Pacific. The solution was a dedicated kamikaze craft, built out of non essential materials, and packing enough explosives to sink a heavily armoured warship. It was designed to be carried underneath the Mitsubishi G4M “Betty” bomber. Once near the target it would be released, using its three rocket motors in a 1000kph (620mph) dive at enemy shipping. It was incredibly basic, the cockpit having just four instruments, but since it would only ever be a one way trip this was considered unimportant. Grand plans were put forward for waves of suicide aircraft to be launched from planes, submarines and even caves.

The Ohka was first used operationally on 21st March 1945, when 16 were carried by “Bettys” to attack US Navy Task Force 58. Pounced by patrolling Hellcats, the bombers released their cargo 113km (70 miles) from the targets. Not a single Ohka reached its target, and all 16 bombers, along with 15 of the 30 escorting Zero fighters, were shot down. On 1st April, the USS West Virginia was hit, suffering minor damage, but again all the Bettys were lost. They were employed a further 8 times before the end of the war. During these operations they sunk one destroyer and badly damaged two more, but at the cost of 50 Ohka and the majority of mothership bombers.

Although extremely fast, it was almost impossible to aim at a moving target, lacked the power to cripple larger ships and was fatally vulnerable until it was launched. To the Americans it was nicknamed the Baka (fool or idiot). In Today’s Japan the kamikaze ethos is seen as a tragic waste of life, and Ohka pilots are honored in several shrines throughout the country. Such suicide attacks (mini submarines, small boats and divers were also utilized) did nothing to stop the Allied advance and merely served to harden their resolve to defeat Japan by whatever means necessary. This was undoubtedly a factor in the decision to use the atomic bomb to end the war.

As an aside, a similar version was also built in Germany as the Fiesler Fi-103. The main difference was this allowed the pilot scope to bale out after aiming his aircraft, although quite how you would successfully climb out at near the speed of sound with a pulse jet by your head is somewhat debatable. The idea of suicide corps was mooted, but Hitler rejected the idea believing it “wasn’t in the German warrior spirit”

Lavochkin Gorbunov Goudkov LaGG3
USSR


Unlike its Western contemporaries the LaGG 3 fighter was designed to be built using “non strategic” materials. The structure was wooden covered with Bakelite lacquer, which meant it was not only cheaper than metal, but resistant to rot and fire. Originally designed with the new Ki-106 engine in mind, it had to switch to the lower powered Ki-105 when the new powerplant proved unreliable. As a result, it was simply too heavy for its own airframe. Nonetheless, it carried powerful armament and was certainly more advanced than any other fighter in the VVS (Soviet Air Force) inventory, and Stalin ordered mass production.

During the early stages of Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the USSR, the Luftwaffe simply ran riot over the poorly trained and equipped VVS. Stalin’s purges had left a crippled command structure unwilling or unable to react. German pilots began to rake up victories with such ease that they began to refer to it as infanticide.

The LaGG was too slow and lacked a rate of climb necessary for an interceptor. Its handling was also taxing, and could enter a vicious spin if it turned too tightly. The wooden frame may have been strong but was too heavy and prone to shattering when hit by cannon fire. It became a deeply unpopular machine; the name was an abbreviation of the principal designers, but pilots grimly joked it stood for lakirovanny garantirovanny grob, or guaranteed varnished coffin.

6,258 versions had been built by the time production was halted. This was not, however, quite the end of the road for the LaGG family. Fitted a lightened airframe, cut down fuselage, and a more powerful radial engine it became the La-5, one of the best Soviet fighters of the war.

Douglas TBD Devastator
USA


As with the Fairey Battle earlier in the list, the Douglas Devastator represented a major advance on its predecessors. First flying in 1935, it was one of the first carrier based monoplanes, the first all metal naval plan and the first with a fully enclosed canopy. At this stage it was, arguably, the most advanced torpedo bomber in the world. By the time of Pearl Harbor it was, however, completely obsolete, yet with its replacement, the TBF Avenger, still in testing stages there was no alternative.

With a top speed of 331kph (206mph) the plodding Devastator was gravely vulnerable to patrolling fighters. To make things even worse, the crude torpedoes it carried could not be released above 185kph (115mph) and often broke up or failed to explode. Testing had been carried out with dummy torpedoes with warheads filled with water, and little thought had been put in to how they would perform in combat.

In the initial stages of the Pacific War the Devastator performed fairly well, sinking 2 transports and a destroyer and contributing to the destruction of the carrier Shoho during the Battle of the Coral Sea. However, it was the decisive Battle of Midway where the aircraft would find infamy. Poor weather and a lack of co ordination meant the Devastator’s Wildcat fighter escort did not show up and its fate was sealed. VT-8 torpedo squadron pressed home their attack against the carrier Kaga, but having to fly straight and level with no escort, the result was a massacre.

Patrolling Zeros quickly shot down all 15 aircraft with only a single airman later being plucked from the sea. Of the 41 Devastators deployed that day, only 4 would return and not a single torpedo hit its target. Their sacrifice wasn’t entirely fruitless, however; in drawing the defending fighters to low altitudes they allowed the Dauntless dive bombers a relatively clear run to sink 3 of the 4 Japanese carriers, and help turn the tide of the war. The few survivors were immediately withdrawn from service, and none survived beyond 1944.

Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet
Germany


The world’s first and only operational rocket powered aircraft, the Komet was a point defence fighter whose performance was, quite literally, explosive. On paper it looked like a winner. It would streak into the sky to intercept American bomber formations and launch a diving attack at speeds well beyond any escorting fighters. Just a few rounds from its deadly twin 30mm cannons would be enough to destroy a four engined bomber, and plans were soon for hundreds of fighters to protect Germany’s industrial heartland. Testing proved encouraging with prototypes reaching speeds of 885kph (550mph)

In reality, the Komet was beset by problems. Although it was extremely fast, it only allowed the pilot a few seconds firing time, and the low rate of fire and muzzle velocity of the cannons made aiming extremely hard. Fuel was used up very quickly, after which the pilot had no option other than to glide back to base. The chief flaw, however, was the extremely volatile nature of the propellant. A hard jolt on takeoff or landing would cause the aircraft to explode, whereas if the fuel leaked it was quite capable of fusing flesh to steel.

It didn’t even have a proper undercarriage, only a disposable wheeled dolly for take off and crude skid for landing. The Komet could also only take off in the direction the wind was blowing and the fuel lasted for 7 minutes 30 seconds at absolute maximum. One was sent to Japan but lost in transit, although the Japanese Army Air Force managed to built the Mitsubishi Ki-200 using only the instruction manual. It flew one test fight, crashed and the project was halted by the end of the war

Of all the Komets lost, 80% were in take off and landing accidents, 15% due to loss of control or fires, and the remaining 5% to Allied aircraft. Only one front line squadron was ever equipped with the Komet. They claimed 9 aircraft for the loss of 14.

Blackburn Roc
Great Britain


During the inter war period, the Air Ministry pinned high hopes on two rather unusual fighters. The Boulton Paul Defiant and Blackburn Roc were single engined monoplanes built for the Royal Air Force and Fleet Air Arm (the Royal Navy’s air force), respectively. Both aircraft concentrated their armament of 4×7.62mm (.303inch) machine guns in an electrically driven turret behind the pilot. The Roc was envisioned as a mobile observation post, engaging “fleet shadowing” aircraft that could report on ship movements whilst staying beyond the range of AA guns, or breaking up incoming torpedo and dive bomber attacks. It was also designed with a limited dive bombing capability of its own

In theory, the idea was sound. Two seater fighters such as the Bristol Scout had given excellent service in World War One, and had been a staple of the RAF in the inter war period. This arrangement would allow the pilot to concentrate on flying whilst his gunner could worry about firing, and also provide a defense against the classic diving attack. Once again, however, when faced with the harsh reality of modern war, it was exposed as a liability.

The only way the gunner could get aim at an opposing fighter would be if the pilot flew straight and level, which in a dogfight is the very last thing you want to do. The aircraft lacked any forward firing guns, and the turret could not even fire head on. The Browning 7.62mm (.303 inch) was the standard RAF weapon for much of the war, but the rifle calibre bullets lacked stopping power against modern aircraft. It also proved almost impossible for the gunner to bail out of a stricken aircraft.

The Defiant saw far more combat and suffered very heavy losses once its Achilles Heel was discovered. However there is a reason the Roc is on the list and the Defiant isn’t. Despite the losses, the RAF’s version scored some early success and proved a reasonable night fighter during the early stages of the Blitz. The Roc on the other hand had a top speed of 160 kph (100mph) less, making it slower than most of the German bombers it was supposed to be shooting down. As a fighter it failed utterly, and in its career scored a grand total of one confirmed kill. The most useful task the Roc ever performed were the four examples parked up and used as permanent AA posts at Gosport airfield.

Blackburn Botha
Great Britain


Conceived as a three seat torpedo bomber/reconnaissance plane, the Botha first flew on 28th December, 1938. Despite being inferior to its competitor, the Bristol Beaufort, in every respect bar service ceiling, both aircraft were ordered for production. The Air Ministry then dictated a fourth crew member should be added, further reducing the Botha’s already inadequate performance.

In addition to its underpowered engines, the aircraft became involved in an alarming number of fatal crashes. Very quickly it developed a reputation as a death trap and, in one especially grim episode, was involved in a mid air collision with a Defiant fighter. The stricken aircraft fell into Blackpool Central Train station, killing all five aircrew and thirteen civilians on the ground.

Although this cannot be blamed on the shortcomings of the aircraft, it did nothing for its terrible reputation. Testing had proven the airframe extremely unstable and inadequate for front line service. One test pilot noted “that thing is bloody lethal, but not to the Germans, I never want to see it again”. Another famous quote “access to this aircraft is difficult. It should be made impossible” is also frequently attributed

Only one squadron ever used the Botha in front line operations. Even then it never dropped a torpedo in anger, instead being used mainly for patrols carrying anti submarine bombs. The type was declared unsuitable a few months later and replaced by the older, but trustworthy, Avro Anson, and then withdrawn to training units. Of the 473 aircraft assigned to training, 169 were lost in crashes. In this respect, it proved far more useful to the German war effort.

Messerschmitt Me 210
Germany


Before the outbreak of war, Luftwaffe doctrine put great faith in Zerstörer (destroyer) aircraft; twin engined, long range heavy fighters. The resultant aircraft, the Me 110, would indeed prove a very effective bomber killer, so long as there were no escorting fighters. Even before war had broken out, work had already begun on its successor, designated Me 210. The new design, which flew the day after the invasion of Poland, was 50mph (80kph) faster, had a longer range and heavier armament.

One very advanced feature was the use of side rear firing 13 mm (0.51 in) MG 131 turret guns (barbettes), controlled remotely by the rear crew member. The testing process was however fraught with difficulty; the prototype was highly unstable, prone to stalling and, despite a total of 16 redesigns, the problems were never adequately solved. The chief test pilot commented that the Me 210 had “all the least desirable attributes an airplane could possess.”

Despite the glaring deficiencies full scale production was ordered. So unpopular was the aircraft that its service life lasted little more than a month, by which time only 90 had been delivered. It was decided that production should be halted, and the Me 110 program restarted. The debacle badly hurt the reputation of the Messerschmitt company, and forced the 110 to solider on well past its sell by date.

Most of the flaws were rectified in later models, yet such was its reputation that they was re-designated the Me 410 Hornisse (Hornet). These improved models initially faired well as bomber destroyers, but were shot down in droves when faced with P-47 and P-51 escort fighters.

This wasn’t quite the end the 210’s story, as it was also built under license in Hungary, who were then part of the Axis Powers. 267 further aircraft were built and supplied to the Hungarian Air Force and Luftwaffe. By all accounts the Hungarian pilots thought highly of the aircraft and used it extensively in the close support and dive bombing roles.

PZL.30 Zubr
Poland


Initially conceived as a passenger aircraft, the astonishingly ugly Zubr (Bison) was converted to a bomber as a backup, in case the somewhat more advanced PZL.37 failed. Romania also expressed an interest in this new design – that is until the aircraft, carrying two high ranking officers, broke apart in midair.

With war fast approaching, the Department of Aeronautics ordered Bristol Pegasus engines 50% more powerful than the prototypes. Experts warned that the airframe wasn’t strong enough, but the powers that be decided it was an acceptable risk. Subsequent examples were crudely strengthened by gluing extra plywood onto the wing spars, but a number of serious defects remained. Chief among these was the undercarriage, whose locking mechanism was extremely weak and unreliable, resulting in most aircraft flying with it fixed down. This, and the extra reinforcing, did nothing for the already poor performance and further reduced its payload.

It was recognized that the Zubr was completely obsolete, and hence assigned to training units. At full weight it could only be operated from paved runways, and even then could only carry a tiny bomb load. Most were destroyed on the ground during the opening days of the war, with Germany operating the few captured survivors. Ironically, they had a longer and more useful life in the hands of the Luftwaffe.

Breda ba.88 Lince
Italy


This list is in no particular order, however there is one aircraft that stands well above (or should that be below?) the rest. First flown in 1936, the sleek and elegant Lince (Lynx) scored a major propaganda victory for Mussolini’s regime when it set two speed over distance records. Its military potential was obvious, however the extra weight necessitated by the weapons, armor plating and equipment had a disastrous effect on its performance and handling.

First employed against French airfields in Corsica the type was found to be hopelessly underpowered and possessed terrible flight characteristics. Nonetheless, it was the only heavy fighter available to the Regia Aeronautica (Italian Air Force), and a number were sent to North Africa. The addition of sand filters robbed what little power the aircraft had, to a point where it became virtually useless.

An attack on a British airfield in September 1940, had to be aborted when the fully laden aircraft failed to reach operational height or maintain formation. From being a record setter, the Lince could now only reach half its claimed speed. Some sources even state the aircraft had to take off in the direction it wanted to travel, as it lacked the power to make a banking turn.

As a final ignominy, the survivors were parked up and used as decoys for attacking Allied aircraft. Others were scrapped straight from the factory, thus completing the career of quite possibly the worst aircraft ever to see combat.

Fairey Battle
Great Britain


First flown in 1936, the 3 seat Fairey Battle light bomber represented a major advance over its biplane predecessors. It was also the first operational aircraft to use the legendary Rolls Royce Merlin engine. Unfortunately, such was the pace of aircraft development during the late 1930s, that it was obsolete before it ever reached a squadron. Nonetheless, with war looming, the Air Ministry was intent on getting as many aircraft, regardless of capability, into service and full scale production was ordered.

At the outbreak of war ten RAF squadrons were sent to Northern France as part of the Advanced Air Striking Force. For the first 8 months engagements were limited, but the Battle did claim the RAF’s first victory of the war, when a rear gunner shot down a Messerschmitt Me 109. However when the Wehrmacht swept into France and the Low Countries on 10th May, 1940, the Battle’s flaws were horribly exposed. Its armament of two rifle calibre machine guns was hopeless against modern fighters, and its slow speed made it an easy target for AA gunners.

32 aircraft were sent on the opening day, of which 13 were lost, along with most of the 18 Belgium examples. The next day, 7 out of 8 were shot down, and on the 14th, 35 of 63 were lost in a desperate all out attack against German bridgeheads. In just a week, 99 aircraft were destroyed, taking with them large numbers of highly experienced aircrew, and failing to delay the German advance by a single hour.

This was, effectively, the end of the Battle’s front line career, and the survivors spent their days fairly peacefully as trainers or target tugs. Perhaps its most famous exploit was the 12th May attack by 5 Battles on the Albert Canal Bridge. Led by Flying Officer Donald Garland, the volunteer crews pressed home their unescorted daylight attack against terrifying odds. One span of the bridge was hit and briefly knocked out, but at the cost of all 5 aircraft. Both Garland and his navigator, Thomas Grey, received posthumous Victoria Crosses, the highest award for bravery a member of the British or Commonwealth armed forces can receive.